Any behaviour that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviours in an intimate relationship is termed as interpersonal violence. It can adversely affect a woman’s physical, mental, sexual and reproductive health.

Intimate partner violence and sexual violence directed at women result in a range of health consequences. Such violence also has negative consequences on the health and well-being of the women’s children. Growing up in a family where intimate partner violence happens and being maltreated as a child is associated with violence perpetration later in life, thus contributing to intergenerational transmission of violence. Intimate partner violence occurring during pregnancy is usually a continuation of ongoing violence, although for some women, violence can begin during pregnancy.

The consequences of violence in intimate relations are unintended pregnancies, gynaecological problems, abortion, STIs/HIV, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, emotional distress, suicide attempts, sleep difficulties and eating disorders. It can also lead to miscarriages, low birth weight, stillbirth and preterm delivery.

Intimate partner violence and sexual violence can be tackled by changing harmful gender norms through comprehensive sexuality education that addresses gender equality, human rights, sexuality and sexual relations. Counselling problem drinkers can reduce the harmful use of alcohol.

Health problems	Issues to maternal health	Issues to infant health
Consequences of intimate partner violence and sexual violence	Unintended pregnancy, gynaecological problems, abortion, STIs/HIV, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, emotional distress, suicide attempts, sleep difficulties, eating disorders	Increased childhood mortality; behavioural and emotional disturbances (may be associated with perpetration or experience of violence later in life); morbidity (e.g. diarrhoeal disease, malnutrition)
Consequences of intimate partner violence and sexual violence during pregnancy	Miscarriage	Low birth weight, stillbirth, preterm delivery

Health problems	Preventive interventions
Intimate partner violence in young people	Health promotion aimed at preventing dating violence.
	Changing harmful gender norms (including those that perpetuate or tolerate violence against women) through comprehensive sexuality education that addresses gender equality, human rights, sexuality and sexual relations; community mobilization.
	Combining and linking economic empowerment and gender equality or life-skills training for women and adolescent girls through community mobilization.
	Reducing the harmful use of alcohol/interventions for problem drinkers through (i) screening and counselling of people who are problem drinkers, and treatment for people who have alcohol use disorders; (ii) changing individual and social norms.
	Provision of health-care services and psychosocial support to survivors of violence; recognizing signs of violence against women; providing medical (including psychosocial) care and referral services where appropriate (including post-rape care).